The Leiden Copper Plates, recently returned to India, are a vital record of Chola history

When valuable Chola bronzes from the villages of Sivapuram and Pathur in Tamil Nadu were returned to India in 1986 and 1991 after protracted legal battles in the US and UK, it caused a sensation. An impressive team of experts from various fields helped repatriate the bronzes after they were smuggled abroad. On 17 February 1988, Justice Ian Kennedy of the London court that awarded the Tamil Nadu idol praised R. Nagaswamy, who testified in the case, as “a recognized expert on Chola bronzes”. The then Director of the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, Nagaswamy was an epigraphist, iconographer, archaeologist and scholar of Tamil and Sanskrit.

It was once again a time of celebration for epigraphists and scholars of Chola history as the Leiden University in the Netherlands handed over the Anaimangalam copper plate deed, popularly known as the Leiden Plates, to Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 16 May 2026 at The Hague.

Pallava, Pandya, Chola and Chera copper plates from the collections of the Government Museum, Chennai and the Department of Archaeology, Chennai. | Photo Credit: Hindu Archives

Repatriation of smuggled artifacts to their countries of origin is a lengthy process. It includes lengthy court battles and testimony from scholars, iconographers, epigraphers, forensic specialists, and police officers. More importantly, the country where the artefacts were discovered must be willing to return them, noted K. Muniratham, Director of Epigraphy, Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Mysuru.

The roles played by ASI Director General YS Rawat, S. Swaminathan, an epigrapher and Prof. Y. Subbarayalu, a scholar of Chola history, were instrumental in persuading the Netherlands to return the plates to India. “We have been trying for the last 14 years. The real process started in 2024 when UNESCO asked me to prepare documentation on the Leiden Tablets. I did so with the help of epigraphist Swaminathan. We worked closely with UNESCO,” said Munirathnam. The ASI also prepared a video presentation and successfully traced the origin of the plates, which proved that they belonged to Tamil Nadu but were taken to Holland. “We have brought back 155 artifacts in the last 13 years,” he added.

Lennart Bes, Assistant Professor, Indian and Asian History, Institute of History (Colonial and Global History), Leiden University, wrote to Subbarayala seeking clarification.

According to Subbarayal, “South Indian historians consider the two sets of Leiden copper plates, weighing about 30 kg and held by the university since 1862, to be important sources for 11th century history. While Chola history is documented by thousands of stone inscriptions, copper plate grants are relatively rare. These plates are therefore invaluable records.”

A statement by Leiden University’s Colonial Collections Committee (CCC), which conducted an independent provenance investigation before deciding to return the plates, noted that the artifacts were “most likely excavated during the construction of Fort Vijf Sinnen and the rebuilding of the Chinese pagoda site in Nagapattinam by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) between 17/16/87. The plates were carefully buried in the ground, most likely to protect them during periods of upheaval.” Florentius Camper “brought” the plates to the Netherlands in 1712 and they were later donated to Leiden University in 1862.

(From left) Leiden University Libraries (UBL) Director Kurt de Belder, Leiden University Executive Board President Luc Sels, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Netherlands Prime Minister Rob Jetten during the official restitution of the 11th-century Anaimangalam Chola copper plates in The Hague on May 16, 2026. | Photo credit: AFP

“The Leiden copper plates relate to the Chulamani Vihara, a Buddhist establishment in Nagapattinam, an important port city of the Chola kingdom. The institutions and grants made to it by the Chola kings testify to the strong international ties between South India and Southeast Asia,” explained Subbarayalu.

The copper plates consist of two sets. The larger set contains 16 Tamil plates and five engraved in Sanskrit in the Grantha script. Inscriptions on the larger slabs reveal that the Sailendra king, Sri Mara Vijayotunga Varman of Srivijaya (Java), requested Rajaraja Chola I (r. 985–1014 CE) for permission to build a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam in memory of his father Sri Chulamani Varman. Rajaraja granted permission in 1006 AD and endowed the vihara with the revenues of the lands in the village of Anaimangalam, including 8,943 kalams (a unit of measurement) of rice and other materials for its upkeep.

Chulamani Vihara was also called Raja Raja Perum Palli (great vihara). Another vihara built in Nagapattinam was called Rajendra Chola Perum Palli. So there were two Buddha viharas in Nagapattinam.

An interesting story surrounds the golden Buddha idol that was once installed in Chulamani Vihara. In his Substack article dated November 15, 2025, TS Krishnan, a specialist in the Chola, Pandya, Chera and Nayaka dynasties and author of several books, wrote: “…it is important to state the oft-repeated misinformation – that Tirumangai Azhwar, one of the Vaishnava Vaishnava saints, used it to build golden statues of Buddha, Sharangam. There is no historical evidence for this claim of a monastery like ‘Chudamani Vihara’ being built centuries after the time of Tirumangai Azhwara.

Referring to the plates, Krishnan said, “They are not just inscriptions. They are living evidence of Chola administration, land grants, maritime connections, Tamil-Southeast Asian relations and the civilizational self-confidence of the Chola era.”

Nagaswamy felt that people write on metal for two reasons. One was the belief that inscribing mystical diagrams (janter) on metal would confer spiritual powers; another was to create durable documents.

Arulmozhivarman (Rajaraja Cholan) is said to have stayed at this Chulamani Vihara in Nagapattinam | Photo credit: B. Velankanni Raj

All the major dynasties of the Tamil region and the Vijayanagara dynasty issued these copperplates, which have been discovered at different places and times. Some were uncovered by farmers plowing fields; others were found in locked rooms or religious mutts. “They are full of historical facts and along with the stone records have benefited historians and archaeologists. Fascinating as they may appear, these copper inscriptions are broad copper plates held together by a thick ring passing through holes in the plates and crowned with the seal of the dynasty that issued them,” said R. Balasubramanian, former curator, Government Museum, Chennai.

The chola era sri brahadeeswarar temple at gangaikondacholapuram, a testament to the majestic architectural heights of the empire whose rulers had copper plates made | Photo credit: M. Srinath

Somehow Rajaraja’s order was not engraved on copper plates as was the custom. After he attained deiva thanmai (his departure) as the inscription mentions, his son ‘Madurantaka’ Rajendra Chola I had his father’s decree engraved on copper plates. “This is mentioned in the Sanskrit section,” said veteran epigraphist V. Vedachalam.

“Importantly, the word ‘Anaimangalam’ was engraved in Tamil on the ring that connects the larger slabs,” he pointed out.

The seal on the larger plates shows a tiger, the royal emblem of the Cholas, the twin fishes of the Pandyas, and the bow of the Cheras, flanked by two fly-sweeps and two lamps—symbols of royal authority. A Sanskrit sloka praising Rajendra runs around them.

The smaller plates were issued by Kulottunga Chola I (r. 1070–1120 CE) in 1090, after two envoys—Raja Vidhyadhara Sri Samanthan and Abhimanothunga Sri Samanthan—from the Javanese ruler met him to seek confirmation that Rajaraja’s earlier grant had since changed. Kulottunga not only reaffirmed the grant but also expanded it and provided additional land and 4,400 kalam of paddy fields for the Chulamani Vihara. The seal on these plates bears a brief Sanskrit stanza in praise of Kulottunga I, underscoring both royal patronage and continued ties across the sea.

Subbarayalu said he once visited the Leiden University library and observed how its officials took care to preserve the records for so long. He asked the ASI officials to take good care of the plates and allow scholars access to study them.